After Troposphere / at one point in stratosphere temperature increases with height Disclaimer/Publisher's Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). Archimedes Principle - buoyancy (upwards force; pressure gradient force) = N. Not the same as will rain for 30% of the time tomorrow Edexcel GCSE Geography Past Papers This negative effect is what we call a natural disaster. Eduqas A Level GeographyPast Papers Hence, combined efforts at the international levels are the possible ways of dealing with these disasters as has been in the case of the tsunami that occurred on 26th December 2004 in which more than 300,000 people lost their lives. MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products . Natural Disasters is topic-wise collection of Important notes, Topic Wise tests, Video lectures, NCERT Textbook, NCERT Solution, and Previous Year papers is designed in a way where you get a complete chapter-wise package for your preparation of Geography for Grade 2 in one place? 2. Establishment of Cyclone centres may provide relief in coastal areas which are hit by a storm surge. A natural disaster pertains to a natural phenomenon that occurs in proximity and poses a threat to people, structures, and economic assets caused by biological, geological, seismic, hydrological, or meteorological conditions or processes in the natural environment. file_download Download . myCBSEguide provides sample papers with solution, test papers for chapter-wise practice, NCERT solutions, NCERT Exemplar solutions, quick revision notes for ready reference, CBSE guess papers and CBSE important question papers. 1. Edexcel A Level Geography Half the incoming solar radiation This reorganization can involve systems transitioning to more positive trajectories. Long term average temperature View Notes - Natural Hazards Notes from ISP 203B at Michigan State University. Horizontal dashed line indicates that there is a pressure gradient This is your solution of Revision Notes - Natural Hazards and Disasters, Class 11, Geography search giving you solved answers for the same. Kinetic energy Therefore it is one of the single largest concerns for most of the developing nations. Biological hazards. History EARTH QUAKES. States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting inundated in recent decades due to flash floods. Construction of dams, 3. This module contains: An editable PowerPoint lesson presentation. Any event can be classed as disaster when the magnitude of destruction and damage caused by it is very high. Cold weather Vegetation cover and 6. Editable revision handouts. Good weather. This balance is important to maintain steady temperatures India is vast and diverse in terms of its physical and socio-cultural attributes. The presence of a natural hazard is a prerequisite for the occurrence of a natural catastrophe. are included in this zone. Latent heat travelled, Jet streams are neither steady nor straight, Troughs and ridges represent the embedded weather systems, Huge temperature gradient Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of tectonic plates. CBSE, NCERT, JEE Main, NEET-UG, NDA, Exam Papers, Question Bank, NCERT Solutions, Exemplars, Revision Notes, Free Videos, MCQ Tests & more. From Pressure high to pressure low (think rising balloon- pressure A-level Chemistry Availability of fodder and water for the cattle 4. Decompression The remaining parts of India can be considered either free or less prone to the drought. A surge is generated due to interaction of air, sea and land. Force / unit area not always in balance! Loss of body heat occurs much faster NH: clockwise FOR NATURAL AND TECHNOLOGICAL HAZARDS 11/10/99 Lecture Notes by: Dr. J. Rene van Dorp 2 Level 1 Individual Risk: Annual Probability of death for individual attributable to a Natural Hazard. Nuclear explosion 3. The cognomen Iustinianus, which he took later, is indicative of adoption by his uncle Justin. The Coriolis force plays little role for a phenomenon that lasts for a few hours or less Revision notes in exam days is one of the best tips recommended by teachers during exam days. Natural Hazards and Disasters class 11 Notes Geography. 3. Our teachers have designed these concept notes for the benefit of Grade 11 students. (iii) Unstable condition through the troposphere that creates local disturbances around which a cyclone develops. Course Hero uses AI to attempt to automatically extract content from documents to surface to you and others so you can study better, e.g., in search results, to enrich docs, and more. Mitigation: It is beyond the capacity of individual state or government to mitigate the damage. body Download the GCSE Geography Natural Hazards: Introduction Resources module. MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS. Due to their strong intermolecular attraction; condensation of water occurs at relatively OCR A Level GeographyPast Papers Printable flashcards to help students engage active recall. A natural hazard is a threat of a naturally occurring event will have a negative effect on humans. Loss of life and property, 6. line, Coriolis Force Destruction of railway lines, 3. Trough = Low Pressure = Cyclone Hence, gathering information and monitoring the possibilities of landslide is not only difficult but also immensely cost-intensive. Spatio-temporal Distribution of Tropical Cyclone in India The tropical cyclones in India originate in Arabian sea in the westand Bay of Bengal in the east. damaging earthquakes occur in Hindu Kush mountains; flooding; droughts, destructive earthquakes; tsunamis occur along southwestern coast; floods; drought, mountainous areas subject to severe earthquakes; mudslides and floods in rainy season; droughts, volcanism: limited volcanic activity on the Ofu and Olosega Islands; neither has erupted since the 19th century, locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau, frequent hurricanes and other tropical storms (July to October), katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; large icebergs may calve from ice shelfvolcanism: volcanic activity on Deception Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak, hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October); periodic droughts, ice islands occasionally break away from northern Ellesmere Island; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern Canada; permafrost in islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May, San Miguel de Tucuman and Mendoza areas in the Andes subject to earthquakes; pamperos are violent windstorms that can strike the pampas and northeast; heavy flooding in some areas, volcanism: volcanic activity in the Andes Mountains along the Chilean border; Copahue (2,997 m) last erupted in 2000; other historically active volcanoes include Llullaillaco, Maipo, Planchon-Peteroa, San Jose, Tromen, Tupungatito, and Viedma, occasionally severe earthquakes; droughts, hurricanes; lies outside the Caribbean hurricane belt and is rarely threatened, surrounded by shoals and reefs that can pose maritime hazards, icebergs common in Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as Bermuda and the Madeira Islands; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May; persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September; hurricanes (May to December), cyclones along the coast; severe droughts; forest fires, volcanism: volcanic activity on Heard and McDonald Islands, hurricanes and other tropical storms cause extensive flood and wind damage, droughts; cyclones; much of the country routinely inundated during the summer monsoon season, infrequent hurricanes; periodic landslides, flooding is a threat along rivers and in areas of reclaimed coastal land, protected from the sea by concrete dikes, frequent, devastating hurricanes (June to November) and coastal flooding (especially in south), hot, dry, dusty harmattan wind may affect north from December to March, violent storms from the Himalayas are the source of the country's Bhutanese name, which translates as Land of the Thunder Dragon; frequent landslides during the rainy season, flooding in the northeast (March to April), volcanism: volcanic activity in Andes Mountains on the border with Chile; historically active volcanoes in this region are Irruputuncu (5,163 m), which last erupted in 1995, and the Olca-Paruma volcanic complex (5,762 m to 5,167 m), periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility, occasional volcanism, rock slides; harsh climate, surrounded by pack ice in winter, recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south, none; located outside routes of Indian Ocean cyclones, hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October), typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are rare, destructive earthquakes and cyclones; flooding and landslides common during rainy season (June to September); periodic droughts, prolonged droughts; seasonal harmattan wind produces obscuring dust; volcanically and seismically active, volcanism: Fogo (2,829 m), which last erupted in 1995, is Cabo Verde's only active volcano, monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts, volcanic activity with periodic releases of poisonous gases from Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun volcanoes, volcanism: Mt. DROUGHTS: The term drought is applied to an extended period when there is a shortage of water availability due to inadequate precipitation, excessive rate of evaporation and over-utilisation of water from the reservoirs and other storages, including the ground water. Though most of the cyclones originate between 10-15 north latitudes during the monsoon season, yet in case of the Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the months of October and November. Provision for the distribution of safe drinking water, 2. Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also lead to flood, 5. Floods occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity if the river channels and streams and flows into the neighbouring low-lying floodplains Causes of Floods 1. Danger of hypothermia As shown in the Figure, areas vulnerable to these earthquakes are the North-east states, areas to the north of Darbhanga and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar, Uttarakhand, Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala) and Kashmir Valley in the Himalayan region and the Kuchchh (Gujarat). Convection CIE iGCSE Geography Past Papers Meteorological hazards. How Natural Hazards are Categorised Study Notes. Every year it loses thousands of lives and property worth millions of rupees due to these natural calamities. To download Natural Resources class 9 Notes Science, sample paper for class 9 Mathematics, Social Science, Science, English ; do . Download CBSE Class 11 Geography Natural Hazards And Disasters Notes in PDF format. Risk = (Frequency or probability of event) * (consequence) For countries where volcanic activity is common, a volcanism subfield highlights historically active volcanoes. Planetary Albedo: 30% of solar energy reflected back to space Probability distribution = histogram of relative frequency 11. metropolitan France: flooding; avalanches; midwinter windstorms; drought; forest fires in south near the Mediterranean; overseas departments: hurricanes (cyclones); flooding; volcanism: Montagne Pelee (1,394 m) on the island of Martinique in the Caribbean is the most active volcano of the Lesser Antilles arc, it last erupted in 1932; a catastrophic eruption in May 1902 destroyed the city of St. Pierre, killing an estimated 30,000 people; La Soufriere (1,467 m) on the island of Guadeloupe in the Caribbean last erupted from July 1976 to March 1977; these volcanoes are part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south, Ile Amsterdam and Ile Saint-Paul are inactive volcanoes; Iles Eparses subject to periodic cyclones; Bassas da India is a maritime hazard since it is under water for a period of three hours prior to and following the high tide and surrounded by reefs, volcanism: Reunion Island - Piton de la Fournaise (2,632 m), which has erupted many times in recent years including 2010, 2015, and 2017, is one of the world's most active volcanoes; although rare, eruptions outside the volcano's caldera could threaten nearby cities, dry, dusty, northeastern harmattan winds from January to March; droughts, occasional droughts; no streams or large bodies of water on the peninsula (all potable water comes from desalination), volcanism: Santorini (367 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; although there have been very few eruptions in recent centuries, Methana and Nisyros in the Aegean are classified as historically active, continuous permafrost over northern two-thirds of the island, lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November, volcanism: Mount Saint Catherine (840 m) lies on the island of Grenada; Kick 'em Jenny, an active submarine volcano (seamount) on the Caribbean Sea floor, lies about 8 km north of the island of Grenada; these two volcanoes are at the southern end of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends up to the Netherlands dependency of Saba in the north, frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare but potentially destructive typhoons (June to December), numerous volcanoes in mountains, with occasional violent earthquakes; Caribbean coast extremely susceptible to hurricanes and other tropical storms, volcanism: significant volcanic activity in the Sierra Madre range; Santa Maria (3,772 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Pacaya (2,552 m), which erupted in May 2010 causing an ashfall on Guatemala City and prompting evacuations, is one of the country's most active volcanoes with frequent eruptions since 1965; other historically active volcanoes include Acatenango, Almolonga, Atitlan, Fuego, and Tacana; see note 2 under "Geography - note", very large tidal variation and fast currents can make local waters dangerous, hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season, hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires, lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts, Mawson Peak, an active volcano, is on Heard Island, frequent, but generally mild, earthquakes; extremely susceptible to damaging hurricanes and floods along the Caribbean coast, volcanism: Iceland, situated on top of a hotspot, experiences severe volcanic activity; Eyjafjallajokull (1,666 m) erupted in 2010, sending ash high into the atmosphere and seriously disrupting European air traffic; scientists continue to monitor nearby Katla (1,512 m), which has a high probability of eruption in the very near future, potentially disrupting air traffic; Grimsvoetn and Hekla are Iceland's most active volcanoes; other historically active volcanoes include Askja, Bardarbunga, Brennisteinsfjoll, Esjufjoll, Hengill, Krafla, Krisuvik, Kverkfjoll, Oraefajokull, Reykjanes, Torfajokull, and Vestmannaeyjar, droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding from monsoonal rains; severe thunderstorms; earthquakes, volcanism: Barren Island (354 m) in the Andaman Sea has been active in recent years, occasional icebergs pose navigational hazard in southern reaches, occasional floods; severe droughts; tsunamis; earthquakes; volcanoes; forest fires, volcanism: Indonesia contains the most volcanoes of any country in the world - some 76 are historically active; significant volcanic activity occurs on Java, Sumatra, the Sunda Islands, Halmahera Island, Sulawesi Island, Sangihe Island, and in the Banda Sea; Merapi (2,968 m), Indonesia's most active volcano and in eruption since 2010, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; on 22 December 2018, a large explosion and flank collapse destroyed most of the 338 m high island of Anak Krakatau (Child of Krakatau) and generated a deadly tsunami inundating portions of western Java and southern Sumatra leaving more than 400 dead; other notable historically active volcanoes include Agung, Awu, Karangetang, Krakatau (Krakatoa), Makian, Raung, Sinabung, and Tambora; see note 2 under "Geography - note", periodic droughts, floods; dust storms, sandstorms; earthquakes, sandstorms may occur during spring and summer; droughts; periodic earthquakes, regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice, volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Etna (3,330 m), which is in eruption as of 2010, is Europe's most active volcano; flank eruptions pose a threat to nearby Sicilian villages; Etna, along with the famous Vesuvius, which remains a threat to the millions of nearby residents in the Bay of Naples area, have both been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Stromboli, on its namesake island, has also been continuously active with moderate volcanic activity; other historically active volcanoes include Campi Flegrei, Ischia, Larderello, Pantelleria, Vulcano, and Vulsini, volcanism: Beerenberg (2,227 m) is Norway's only active volcano; volcanic activity resumed in 1970; the most recent eruption occurred in 1985, many dormant and some active volcanoes; about 1,500 seismic occurrences (mostly tremors but occasional severe earthquakes) every year; tsunamis; typhoons, volcanism: both Unzen (1,500 m) and Sakura-jima (1,117 m), which lies near the densely populated city of Kagoshima, have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Asama, Honshu Island's most active volcano, Aso, Bandai, Fuji, Iwo-Jima, Kikai, Kirishima, Komaga-take, Oshima, Suwanosejima, Tokachi, Yake-dake, and Usu; see note 2 under "Geography - note", very large tidal variation can be hazardous to navigation, droughts; periodic earthquakes; flash floods, earthquakes in the south; mudslides around Almaty, recurring drought; flooding during rainy seasons, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; the Barrier (1,032 m) last erupted in 1921; South Island is the only other historically active volcano, typhoons can occur any time, but usually November to March; occasional tornadoes; low level of some of the islands make them sensitive to changes in sea level, late spring droughts often followed by severe flooding; occasional typhoons during the early fall, volcanism: P'aektu-san (2,744 m) (also known as Baitoushan, Baegdu, or Changbaishan), on the Chinese border, is considered historically active, occasional typhoons bring high winds and floods; low-level seismic activity common in southwest, volcanism: Halla (1,950 m) is considered historically active although it has not erupted in many centuries, sudden cloudbursts are common from October to April and bring heavy rain, which can damage roads and houses; sandstorms and dust storms occur throughout the year but are most common between March and August, major flooding during snow melt; prone to earthquakes, large percentage of agricultural fields can become waterlogged and require drainage, dust-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to March), hot, dry, dust-laden ghibli is a southern wind lasting one to four days in spring and fall; dust storms, sandstorms, periodic cyclones; drought; and locust infestation, volcanism: Madagascar's volcanoes have not erupted in historical times, tsunamis; low elevation of islands makes them sensitive to sea level rise, hot, dust-laden harmattan haze common during dry seasons; recurring droughts; occasional Niger River flooding, hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind primarily in March and April; periodic droughts, cyclones (November to April); almost completely surrounded by reefs that may pose maritime hazards, tsunamis along the Pacific coast, volcanoes and destructive earthquakes in the center and south, and hurricanes on the Pacific, Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean coasts, volcanism: volcanic activity in the central-southern part of the country; the volcanoes in Baja California are mostly dormant; Colima (3,850 m), which erupted in 2010, is Mexico's most active volcano and is responsible for causing periodic evacuations of nearby villagers; it has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Popocatepetl (5,426 m) poses a threat to Mexico City; other historically active volcanoes include Barcena, Ceboruco, El Chichon, Michoacan-Guanajuato, Pico de Orizaba, San Martin, Socorro, and Tacana; see note 2 under "Geography - note", dust storms; grassland and forest fires; drought; "zud," which is harsh winter conditions, volcanic eruptions; severe hurricanes (June to November), volcanism: Soufriere Hills volcano (915 m), has erupted continuously since 1995; a massive eruption in 1997 destroyed most of the capital, Plymouth, and resulted in approximately half of the island becoming uninhabitable; the island of Montserrat is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south, in the north, the mountains are geologically unstable and subject to earthquakes; periodic droughts; windstorms; flash floods; landslides; in the south, a hot, dry, dust/sand-laden sirocco wind can occur during winter and spring; widespread harmattan haze exists 60% of time, often severely restricting visibility, severe droughts; devastating cyclones and floods in central and southern provinces, severe thunderstorms; flooding; landslides; drought and famine depending on the timing, intensity, and duration of the summer monsoons, volcanism: Mount Scenery (887 m), located on the island of Saba in the Caribbean, last erupted in 1640;; Round Hill (601 m), a dormant volcano also known as The Quill, is located on the island of St. Eustatius in the Caribbean;; these islands are at the northern end of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends south to Grenada, cyclones, most frequent from November to March, volcanism: Matthew and Hunter Islands are historically active, earthquakes are common, though usually not severe; volcanic activity, volcanism: significant volcanism on North Island; Ruapehu (2,797 m), which last erupted in 2007, has a history of large eruptions in the past century; Taranaki has the potential to produce dangerous avalanches and lahars; other historically active volcanoes include Okataina, Raoul Island, Tongariro, and White Island; see note 2 under "Geography - note", destructive earthquakes; volcanoes; landslides; extremely susceptible to hurricanes, volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Cerro Negro (728 m), which last erupted in 1999, is one of Nicaragua's most active volcanoes; its lava flows and ash have been known to cause significant damage to farmland and buildings; other historically active volcanoes include Concepcion, Cosiguina, Las Pilas, Masaya, Momotombo, San Cristobal, and Telica, tropical cyclones (especially May to July), active volcanoes on Pagan and Agrihan; typhoons (especially August to November), volcanism: Beerenberg (2,227 m) on Jan Mayen Island in the Norwegian Sea is the country's only active volcano, summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in interior; periodic droughts, surrounded by a zone of violent volcanic and earthquake activity sometimes referred to as the "Pacific Ring of Fire"; up to 90% of the world's earthquakes and some 75% of the world's volcanoes occur within the Ring of Fire; 80% of tsunamis, caused by volcanic or seismic events, occur within the "Pacific Ring of Fire"; subject to tropical cyclones (typhoons) in southeast and east Asia from May to December (most frequent from July to October); tropical cyclones (hurricanes) may form south of Mexico and strike Central America and Mexico from June to October (most common in August and September); cyclical El Nino/La Nina phenomenon occurs in the equatorial Pacific, influencing weather in the Western Hemisphere and the western Pacific; ships subject to superstructure icing in extreme north from October to May; persistent fog in the northern Pacific can be a maritime hazard from June to December, frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in north and west; flooding along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August), occasional severe storms and forest fires in the Darien area, active volcanism; the country is subject to frequent and sometimes severe earthquakes; mud slides; tsunamis, volcanism: severe volcanic activity; Ulawun (2,334 m), one of Papua New Guinea's potentially most dangerous volcanoes, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Rabaul (688 m) destroyed the city of Rabaul in 1937 and 1994; Lamington erupted in 1951 killing 3,000 people; Manam's 2004 eruption forced the island's abandonment; other historically active volcanoes include Bam, Bagana, Garbuna, Karkar, Langila, Lolobau, Long Island, Pago, St. Andrew Strait, Victory, and Waiowa; see note 2 under "Geography - note", local flooding in southeast (early September to June); poorly drained plains may become boggy (early October to June), earthquakes, tsunamis, flooding, landslides, mild volcanic activity, volcanism: volcanic activity in the Andes Mountains; Ubinas (5,672 m), which last erupted in 2009, is the country's most active volcano; other historically active volcanoes include El Misti, Huaynaputina, Sabancaya, and Yucamane; see note 2 under "Geography - note", astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms each year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis, volcanism: significant volcanic activity; Taal (311 m), which has shown recent unrest and may erupt in the near future, has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Mayon (2,462 m), the country's most active volcano, erupted in 2009 forcing over 33,000 to be evacuated; other historically active volcanoes include Biliran, Babuyan Claro, Bulusan, Camiguin, Camiguin de Babuyanes, Didicas, Iraya, Jolo, Kanlaon, Makaturing, Musuan, Parker, Pinatubo, and Ragang; see note 2 under "Geography - note", occasional tropical cyclones (especially November to March), but generally only heavy tropical storms; landslides, volcanism: limited volcanic activity in the Azores Islands; Fayal or Faial (1,043 m) last erupted in 1958; most volcanoes have not erupted in centuries; historically active volcanoes include Agua de Pau, Furnas, Pico, Picos Volcanic System, San Jorge, Sete Cidades, and Terceira, earthquakes, most severe in south and southwest; geologic structure and climate promote landslides, permafrost over much of Siberia is a major impediment to development; volcanic activity in the Kuril Islands; volcanoes and earthquakes on the Kamchatka Peninsula; spring floods and summer/autumn forest fires throughout Siberia and parts of European Russia, volcanism: significant volcanic activity on the Kamchatka Peninsula and Kuril Islands; the peninsula alone is home to some 29 historically active volcanoes, with dozens more in the Kuril Islands; Kliuchevskoi (4,835 m), which erupted in 2007 and 2010, is Kamchatka's most active volcano; Avachinsky and Koryaksky volcanoes, which pose a threat to the city of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; other notable historically active volcanoes include Bezymianny, Chikurachki, Ebeko, Gorely, Grozny, Karymsky, Ketoi, Kronotsky, Ksudach, Medvezhia, Mutnovsky, Sarychev Peak, Shiveluch, Tiatia, Tolbachik, and Zheltovsky; see note 2 under "Geography - note", periodic droughts; the volcanic Virunga Mountains are in the northwest along the border with Democratic Republic of the Congo, volcanism: Visoke (3,711 m), located on the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo, is the country's only historically active volcano, volcanism: the island volcanoes of Tristan da Cunha (2,060 m) and Nightingale Island (365 m) experience volcanic activity; Tristan da Cunha erupted in 1962 and Nightingale in 2004, volcanism: Mount Liamuiga (1,156 m) on Saint Kitts, and Nevis Peak (985 m) on Nevis, are both volcanoes that are part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles, which extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south, volcanism: Mount Gimie (948 m), also known as Qualibou, is a caldera on the west of the island; the iconic twin pyramidal peaks of Gros Piton (771 m) and Petit Piton (743 m) are lava dome remnants associated with the Soufriere volcano; there have been no historical magmatic eruptions, but a minor steam eruption in 1766 spread a thin layer of ash over a wide area; Saint Lucia is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south, subject to hurricanes from July to November, persistent fog throughout the year can be a maritime hazard, hurricanes; La Soufriere volcano on the island of Saint Vincent is a constant threat, volcanism: La Soufriere (1,234 m) on the island of Saint Vincent last erupted in 1979; the island of Saint Vincent is part of the volcanic island arc of the Lesser Antilles that extends from Saba in the north to Grenada in the south, volcanism: Savai'I Island (1,858 m), which last erupted in 1911, is historically active, volcanism: despite many volcanic formations, there has been little activity in the past few centuries; volcanoes include Harrat Rahat, Harrat Khaybar, Harrat Lunayyir, and Jabal Yar, lowlands seasonally flooded; periodic droughts, lies outside the cyclone belt, so severe storms are rare; occasional short droughts, dry, sand-laden harmattan winds blow from the Sahara (December to February); sandstorms, dust storms, tropical cyclones, but rarely destructive; geologically active region with frequent earthquakes, tremors, and volcanic activity; tsunamis, volcanism: Tinakula (851 m) has frequent eruption activity, while an eruption of Savo (485 m) could affect the capital Honiara on nearby Guadalcanal, recurring droughts; frequent dust storms over eastern plains in summer; floods during rainy season, volcanism: the volcano forming Marion Island in the Prince Edward Islands, which last erupted in 2004, is South Africa's only active volcano, the South Sandwich Islands have prevailing weather conditions that generally make them difficult to approach by ship; they are also subject to active volcanism, huge icebergs with drafts up to several hundred meters; smaller bergs and iceberg fragments; sea ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) with sometimes dynamic short-term variations and with large annual and interannual variations; deep continental shelf floored by glacial deposits varying widely over short distances; high winds and large waves much of the year; ship icing, especially May-October; most of region is remote from sources of search and rescue, volcanism: volcanic activity in the Canary Islands, located off Africa's northwest coast; Teide (3,715 m) has been deemed a Decade Volcano by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to its explosive history and close proximity to human populations; La Palma (2,426 m), which last erupted in 1971, is the most active of the Canary Islands volcanoes; Lanzarote is the only other historically active volcano, typhoons; numerous reefs and shoals pose a serious maritime hazard, dust storms and periodic persistent droughts, ice floes often block the entrance to Bellsund (a transit point for coal export) on the west coast and occasionally make parts of the northeastern coast inaccessible to maritime traffic, ice floes in the surrounding waters, especially in the Gulf of Bothnia, can interfere with maritime traffic, volcanism: Syria's two historically active volcanoes, Es Safa and an unnamed volcano near the Turkish border have not erupted in centuries, volcanism: Kueishantao Island (401 m), east of Taiwan, is its only historically active volcano, although it has not erupted in centuries, flooding on the central plateau during the rainy season; drought, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; Ol Doinyo Lengai (2,962 m) has emitted lava in recent years; other historically active volcanoes include Kieyo and Meru, land subsidence in Bangkok area resulting from the depletion of the water table; droughts, floods and landslides are common; earthquakes; tsunamis; tropical cyclones, hot, dry harmattan wind can reduce visibility in north during winter; periodic droughts, cyclones (October to April); earthquakes and volcanic activity on Fonuafo'ou, volcanism: moderate volcanic activity; Fonualei (180 m) has shown frequent activity in recent years, while Niuafo'ou (260 m), which last erupted in 1985, has forced evacuations; other historically active volcanoes include Late and Tofua, outside usual path of hurricanes and other tropical storms, severe earthquakes, especially in northern Turkey, along an arc extending from the Sea of Marmara to Lake Van; landslides; flooding, volcanism: limited volcanic activity; its three historically active volcanoes; Ararat, Nemrut Dagi, and Tendurek Dagi have not erupted since the 19th century or earlier, earthquakes; mudslides; droughts; dust storms; floods, severe tropical storms are usually rare, but in 1997 there were three cyclones; low levels of islands make them sensitive to changes in sea level, droughts; floods; earthquakes; landslides; hailstorms, tsunamis; volcanoes; earthquake activity around Pacific Basin; hurricanes along the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts; tornadoes in the Midwest and Southeast; mud slides in California; forest fires in the west; flooding; permafrost in northern Alaska, a major impediment to development, volcanism: volcanic activity in the Hawaiian Islands, Western Alaska, the Pacific Northwest, and in the Northern Mariana Islands; both Mauna Loa (4,170 m) in Hawaii and Mount Rainier (4,392 m) in Washington have been deemed Decade Volcanoes by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior, worthy of study due to their explosive history and close proximity to human populations; Pavlof (2,519 m) is the most active volcano in Alaska's Aleutian Arc and poses a significant threat to air travel since the area constitutes a major flight path between North America and East Asia; St. Helens (2,549 m), famous for the devastating 1980 eruption, remains active today; numerous other historically active volcanoes exist, mostly concentrated in the Aleutian arc and Hawaii; they include: in Alaska: Aniakchak, Augustine, Chiginagak, Fourpeaked, Iliamna, Katmai, Kupreanof, Martin, Novarupta, Redoubt, Spurr, Wrangell, Trident, Ugashik-Peulik, Ukinrek Maars, Veniaminof; in Hawaii: Haleakala, Kilauea, Loihi; in the Northern Mariana Islands: Anatahan; and in the Pacific Northwest: Mount Baker, Mount Hood; see note 2 under "Geography - note".
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